People-centred development - Revision history

Admin: /* Mapping the Approach */

2021-12-09T13:46:26Z

Mapping the Approach

Admin: /* Mapping the Approach */

2021-12-09T13:45:13Z

Mapping the Approach

Admin at 14:58, 12 April 2021

2021-04-12T14:58:02Z

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Admin: /* Exercises */

2021-04-09T13:26:51Z

Exercises

Admin at 13:25, 9 April 2021

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Admin at 13:24, 9 April 2021

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 A useful tool and starting point for making sense of the various cross-cutting fields of study and the practices, research approaches and methods of people-centred development is Elizabeth Sanders’ “Map of Design Research” (Sanders 2006; 2008). In her map (see Figure 2), Sanders defines existing design research types/approaches as “zones” (large circles), “clusters” (larger bubbles within zones that signify the existence and support of professional organisations), and “bubbles” (smaller, not yet supported by professional organisations). They are positioned along two dimensions. The vertical dimension is defined by approach (research-led or design-led), whereas “the research-led perspective has the longest history and has been driven by applied psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists, and engineers”  <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2008. Co-creation and the New Landscapes of Design. CoDesign 4 (1): 5-18: 13.</ref>  . The horizontal dimension portrays the “mindsets of those who practice and teach design research”  <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2006. Design Research in 2006. Design Research Quarterly, 1 (1): 1-8: 5.</ref>  .
-In continuation (see Figure 3), Sanders overlays “People-Centered Innovation” [1] on the map of design research. As is evident from Figure 3, People-centred innovation (development) leans towards the participatory model, where “users” become partners (“active co-creators”) in the design/development process. She identifies three main research types: Applied Ethnography, [[https://wiki.active8-planet.eu/index.php/Participatory design|Participatory Design]], and Lead-User Innovation.
+In continuation (see Figure 3), Sanders overlays “People-Centered Innovation” [1] on the map of design research. As is evident from Figure 3, People-centred innovation (development) leans towards the participatory model, where “users” become partners (“active co-creators”) in the design/development process. She identifies three main research types: Applied Ethnography, [[participatory design|Participatory Design]], and Lead-User Innovation.
 Sanders first presented the map in 2006 as a “cognitive collage” of design research that was still taking shape  <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2006. Design Research in 2006. Design Research Quarterly, 1 (1): 1-8: 4.</ref>  (Sanders 2006: 4). She subsequently altered some details  <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2008. Co-creation and the New Landscapes of Design. CoDesign 4 (1): 5-18.</ref>  and invited others to work on the map from their perspectives. From our standpoint - and taking into account the literature published in the 10 years after the first publication of Sanders’ map - we might also add to this overview the more recent and expanding field of Design Anthropology, placing it at the intersection of the People-Centred Innovation and User-Centred Design zones between Expert and Participatory Mindsets, leaning towards Research-Led approaches.

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 A useful tool and starting point for making sense of the various cross-cutting fields of study and the practices, research approaches and methods of people-centred development is Elizabeth Sanders’ “Map of Design Research” (Sanders 2006; 2008). In her map (see Figure 2), Sanders defines existing design research types/approaches as “zones” (large circles), “clusters” (larger bubbles within zones that signify the existence and support of professional organisations), and “bubbles” (smaller, not yet supported by professional organisations). They are positioned along two dimensions. The vertical dimension is defined by approach (research-led or design-led), whereas “the research-led perspective has the longest history and has been driven by applied psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists, and engineers”  <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2008. Co-creation and the New Landscapes of Design. CoDesign 4 (1): 5-18: 13.</ref>  . The horizontal dimension portrays the “mindsets of those who practice and teach design research”  <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2006. Design Research in 2006. Design Research Quarterly, 1 (1): 1-8: 5.</ref>  .
-In continuation (see Figure 3), Sanders overlays “People-Centered Innovation” [1] on the map of design research. As is evident from Figure 3, People-centred innovation (development) leans towards the participatory model, where “users” become partners (“active co-creators”) in the design/development process. She identifies three main research types: Applied Ethnography, Participatory Design, and Lead-User Innovation.
+In continuation (see Figure 3), Sanders overlays “People-Centered Innovation” [1] on the map of design research. As is evident from Figure 3, People-centred innovation (development) leans towards the participatory model, where “users” become partners (“active co-creators”) in the design/development process. She identifies three main research types: Applied Ethnography, [[https://wiki.active8-planet.eu/index.php/Participatory design|Participatory Design]], and Lead-User Innovation.
 Sanders first presented the map in 2006 as a “cognitive collage” of design research that was still taking shape  <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2006. Design Research in 2006. Design Research Quarterly, 1 (1): 1-8: 4.</ref>  (Sanders 2006: 4). She subsequently altered some details  <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2008. Co-creation and the New Landscapes of Design. CoDesign 4 (1): 5-18.</ref>  and invited others to work on the map from their perspectives. From our standpoint - and taking into account the literature published in the 10 years after the first publication of Sanders’ map - we might also add to this overview the more recent and expanding field of Design Anthropology, placing it at the intersection of the People-Centred Innovation and User-Centred Design zones between Expert and Participatory Mindsets, leaning towards Research-Led approaches.
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 We can see that preparing for a people-centred design or development study involves analysing existing research - theoretical or applied - that has dealt in some way with the issues raised by the prospective client. This will aid the researcher to become more knowledgeable of how analogous issues and problems have been discussed. This is the first step towards reconfiguring the questions and needs of the client into ethnographic, people-centred research problems (step 2).
 == Traditional vs. people-centred research ==
 How does the people-centred development research differ from “traditional” research? In the case of traditional “theoretical” research, researchers themselves often identify and define the questions that they wish to examine. This however does not take place in a vacuum, as a researcher often takes into account current circumstances, existing research concerning the proposed object of analysis as well as the feasibility of funding.

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 Sanders first presented the map in 2006 as a “cognitive collage” of design research that was still taking shape  <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2006. Design Research in 2006. Design Research Quarterly, 1 (1): 1-8: 4.</ref>  (Sanders 2006: 4). She subsequently altered some details  <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2008. Co-creation and the New Landscapes of Design. CoDesign 4 (1): 5-18.</ref>  and invited others to work on the map from their perspectives. From our standpoint - and taking into account the literature published in the 10 years after the first publication of Sanders’ map - we might also add to this overview the more recent and expanding field of Design Anthropology, placing it at the intersection of the People-Centred Innovation and User-Centred Design zones between Expert and Participatory Mindsets, leaning towards Research-Led approaches.
-Another way of mapping design research is provided by Hanington’s  <ref>Hanington, Bruce M. 2010. Relevant and Rigorous: Human-Centered Research and Design Education. Design Issues 26 (3): 18-26: 21.</ref>  “Model of Design Research”, as taught at Carnegie Mellon University (see Figure 4). Instead of aligning them along with the specific models of research- or design-led dimensions, this model integrates “methods and creative development through specific phases of exploratory, generative, and evaluative research and design”, whereby each phase is characterised “by approaches, while not limited by specific methods”  <ref>Hanington, Bruce M. 2010. Relevant and Rigorous: Human-Centered Research and Design Education. Design Issues 26 (3): 18-26: 21.</ref> .
+Another way of mapping design research is provided by Hanington’s  <ref>Hanington, Bruce M. 2010. Relevant and Rigorous: Human-Centered Research and Design Education. Design Issues 26 (3): 18-26: 21.</ref>  “Model of Design Research”, as taught at Carnegie Mellon University (see Figure 4). Instead of aligning them along with the specific models of research- or design-led dimensions, this model integrates “methods and creative development through specific phases of exploratory, generative, and evaluative research and design”, whereby each phase is characterised “by approaches, while not limited by specific methods”  <ref>Hanington, Bruce M. 2010. Relevant and Rigorous: Human-Centered Research and Design Education. Design Issues 26 (3): 18-26: 21.</ref>  .
 This model gives us a simple but efficient visual representation of a people-centred design and development process. We can see that a people-centred design project will develop through three interconnected phases, the exploratory, generative, and evaluative phase. In each phase, the design team chooses different approaches and methods to achieve set goals.
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 People-centred development research initiates communication and negotiation between the client and researcher the sorts of questions to pursue. Sometimes these needs are not necessarily clearly articulated by the client,  <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Monique Lambert. 2009. Working in Corporate Jungles: Reflections on Ethnographic Praxis in Industry. In Ethnography and the Corporate Encounter: Reflections on Research in and of Corporations, ed. Melissa Cefkin. New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books. Pp. 95-133.</ref>  explain how their client requested that they study “the people stuff”. Communications and negotiations between clients and researchers can continue intermittently through the course of the study or project.
 == Exercises ==
 === How to use this map ===

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 #The first step is '''[[identification]]''', where we define whose problems are actually being solved or who are the people in focus.
 #In the second step, we carry out '''[[research]]''' and analyse their needs, using and combining different approaches, from the social sciences and humanities. In this way, we learn about people’s everyday experiences, practices and habits to find out what they need and want.
-#The third step is '''interpretation'''. On the basis of research findings and in cooperation with the developers we prepare recommendations for design and development.
+#The third step is '''[[interpretation]]'''. On the basis of research findings and in cooperation with the developers we prepare recommendations for design and development.
-#The fourth step, '''design, development and testing''', assures optimal user experience. In this phase, when we already have a prototype of the product or service, the central question is why and how - and if at all - the newly created solutions are relevant, important and meaningful to people.
+#The fourth step, '''[[design, development and testing]]''', assures optimal user experience. In this phase, when we already have a prototype of the product or service, the central question is why and how - and if at all - the newly created solutions are relevant, important and meaningful to people.
 The people-centred approach in design and development attempts to make a move from the mindset of engineers, designers and researchers to the specific needs and experiences of people. In this approach, people play an important part in the innovation, design, co-creation, and testing of solutions. The approach has been tried by numerous international companies. In the 1970s Xerox relied on a people-centred approach to improve the usability of their first photocopying machine; in the 1990s, Boeing employed ethnography to design the 787 Dreamliner aircraft, and Microsoft used it to improve their operating system. In the new millennium, several other companies, including Intel, Google, General Motors, Motorola, Nissan, and Volvo, started to hire social scientists and use people-centred approaches for the design and development of their products and services.
 == The Four Basic Steps ==

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 The key idea of people-centred development is that people, as ‘end-users’ or customers, should be included in making or improving products and services. There are a number of tools and techniques available that allow researchers, designers, and engineers to work with people throughout the design and development process. There are four phases – or basic steps – of the people-centred development:
 #The first step is '''[[identification]]''', where we define whose problems are actually being solved or who are the people in focus.
-#In the second step, we carry out '''research''' and analyse their needs, using and combining different approaches, from the social sciences and humanities. In this way, we learn about people’s everyday experiences, practices and habits to find out what they need and want.
+#In the second step, we carry out '''[[research]]''' and analyse their needs, using and combining different approaches, from the social sciences and humanities. In this way, we learn about people’s everyday experiences, practices and habits to find out what they need and want.
 #The third step is '''interpretation'''. On the basis of research findings and in cooperation with the developers we prepare recommendations for design and development.
 #The fourth step, '''design, development and testing''', assures optimal user experience. In this phase, when we already have a prototype of the product or service, the central question is why and how - and if at all - the newly created solutions are relevant, important and meaningful to people.

@@ Line 33: / Line 33: @@
 People-centred development research initiates communication and negotiation between the client and researcher the sorts of questions to pursue. Sometimes these needs are not necessarily clearly articulated by the client,  <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Monique Lambert. 2009. Working in Corporate Jungles: Reflections on Ethnographic Praxis in Industry. In Ethnography and the Corporate Encounter: Reflections on Research in and of Corporations, ed. Melissa Cefkin. New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books. Pp. 95-133.</ref>  explain how their client requested that they study “the people stuff”. Communications and negotiations between clients and researchers can continue intermittently through the course of the study or project.
 == Exercises ==
 Thinking about people-centred research and practice in terms of a map can facilitate our orientation within the vast and entangled field of people- (human) centred design and development. When you read an article, a book chapter, or a monograph on people-centred design, approaches, methods, and tools, analyse the text along the two dimensions. Is the approach more research- or design-led? Are users actively participating in product or service development, or are they informants providing information? There is no “wrong” or “right” here - as design and development researchers, we will inevitably use a number of methods within a single project. Some of these methods might require less creative involvement from the people we are working with, while other techniques will transform some of the research participants into research partners. It is true, however, that different methods or techniques yield different results and insights. In continuation, you may consider what kind of knowledge was made available by opting for a particular approach in a particular example (e.g. a text you were reading) and how that could change if the author chose a different perspective or method?
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 #This isn’t scientific.
 #What kind of results can you give me?
 == Cases ==
 === Anna Kirah: Co-creation as a key to success ===

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 How does the people-centred development research differ from “traditional” research? In the case of traditional “theoretical” research, researchers themselves often identify and define the questions that they wish to examine. This however does not take place in a vacuum, as a researcher often takes into account current circumstances, existing research concerning the proposed object of analysis as well as the feasibility of funding.
-People-centred development research by definition involves studies that are commissioned and financed by a client that wishes to shed light on a specific problem or issue - be they from the private or public sector. This means that while the study is rooted in the same theoretical and methodological traditions as theoretical research, it is framed by the issues of the client. As  <ref>Pink, Sarah, and Jennifer Morgan. 2013. Short-term Ethnography: Intense Routes to Knowing. Symbolic Interaction 36 (3): 351–361. explain, conducting research in such situations is not so much about the use of new techniques and technologies but about using them in different ways.
+People-centred development research by definition involves studies that are commissioned and financed by a client that wishes to shed light on a specific problem or issue - be they from the private or public sector. This means that while the study is rooted in the same theoretical and methodological traditions as theoretical research, it is framed by the issues of the client. As  <ref>Pink, Sarah, and Jennifer Morgan. 2013. Short-term Ethnography: Intense Routes to Knowing. Symbolic Interaction 36 (3): 351–361.</ref> explain, conducting research in such situations is not so much about the use of new techniques and technologies but about using them in different ways.
 In addition, as <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Monique Lambert. 2009. Working in Corporate Jungles: Reflections on Ethnographic Praxis in Industry. In Ethnography and the Corporate Encounter: Reflections on Research in and of Corporations, ed. Melissa Cefkin. New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books. Pp. 95-133.</ref>  argue, it is important to keep in mind that the relationship between researchers and funders in the case of theoretical or people-centred development research differs in a fundamental way. In the case of conventional research, the relationship between the researcher and the funding body virtually ceases upon the disbursement of funds. The researcher is required to submit interim and final reports to the funding organization, but from the moment of funding, the researcher has a great deal of latitude to conduct the study as she or he sees fit.

@@ Line 21: / Line 21: @@
 Another way of mapping design research is provided by Hanington’s  <ref>Hanington, Bruce M. 2010. Relevant and Rigorous: Human-Centered Research and Design Education. Design Issues 26 (3): 18-26: 21.</ref>  “Model of Design Research”, as taught at Carnegie Mellon University (see Figure 4). Instead of aligning them along with the specific models of research- or design-led dimensions, this model integrates “methods and creative development through specific phases of exploratory, generative, and evaluative research and design”, whereby each phase is characterised “by approaches, while not limited by specific methods” <ref>Hanington, Bruce M. 2010. Relevant and Rigorous: Human-Centered Research and Design Education. Design Issues 26 (3): 18-26: 21.</ref>.
-This model gives us a simple but efficient visual representation of a people-centred design and development process. We can see that a people-centred design project will develop through three interconnected phases, the exploratory, generative, and evaluative phase. In each phase, the design team chooses different approaches and methods to achieve set goals.</ref> .
+This model gives us a simple but efficient visual representation of a people-centred design and development process. We can see that a people-centred design project will develop through three interconnected phases, the exploratory, generative, and evaluative phase. In each phase, the design team chooses different approaches and methods to achieve set goals.
 We can see that preparing for a people-centred design or development study involves analysing existing research - theoretical or applied - that has dealt in some way with the issues raised by the prospective client. This will aid the researcher to become more knowledgeable of how analogous issues and problems have been discussed. This is the first step towards reconfiguring the questions and needs of the client into ethnographic, people-centred research problems (step 2).