Active8-planet Wiki - User contributions [en]

Systemic design

2022-03-07T10:40:57Z

Admin:

Systemic design refers to the combination of knowledge from design thinking and systems thinking. This is applied to complex problems that span issues such as equality, sustainability and ethics, i.e. problems that require the understanding of many different parts from both a holistic and individual perspective. These problems often take an organisational or societal perspective. An important aspect is to try to understand the complexities of the world from how they relate to each other, in order to try to understand and mitigate possible effects. Many of the problems addressed using systemic design are so called wicked problems (see <ref>Rittel, H. W., & Webber, M. M. (1973). Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy sciences, 4(2), 155-169</ref> ).

Systemic design processes are often collaborative and include many stakeholders, because they address complex problems. They tend to span a longer period of time. 

Systemic design processes often build on design thinking with foci as understanding the context, developing action plans with stakeholders, and iterating and refining over time. Systemic design processes often build on systems thinking with its focus on exploring the context and connections of the problem’s parts, the different perspectives of its actors, and the boundaries that exist within the system under study. Systems thinking is aimed at creating a systematic understanding of complex and messy situations. 

For more information, tools and tips, see the Systemic Design Toolkit [https://www.systemicdesigntoolkit.org/ https://www.systemicdesigntoolkit.org/]

<h2>References</h2>
 <references></references>

Systemic design

2022-03-07T10:40:36Z

Admin: Created page with "Systemic design refers to the combination of knowledge from design thinking and systems thinking. This is applied to complex problems that span issues such as equality, sustai..."

Case description

2022-02-18T15:35:41Z

Admin: Created page with " This page summarises the cases that the 7+1 teams are working on during the learning cycles. During the course of the project, some challenge definitions might chan..."

This page summarises the cases that the 7+1 teams are working on during the learning cycles. During the course of the project, some challenge definitions might change according to the needs and wants of each 7+1 team; in response to field research or stakeholder wishes.
= Cases from Learning Cycle 1 (2021/2022) =
== Challenge at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam - Healthy Healthcare Environment ==
=== WHY ===
Healthcare facilities should have the healthiest environments in the world. When we are faced with health issues, we can use all the help we can get. Healthcare professionals in The Netherlands are equipped with high tech equipment and educated insights to help their patients. Their patients however, might experience their care differently depending on the environment. For this reason, the healthcare organization we have partnered with would like to learn how their beautiful, old, low ceilinged, rented building is experienced by their patients. 
=== HOW ===
What does a healthy environment look and feel like? And to whom? To answer such questions this challenge zooms in on the experiences and perspectives of both patients and care professionals in a mental healthcare facility in Amsterdam. Four students will conduct ethnographic research at this facility to gain qualitative insights in the effect of environment. At the same time our engineering partner Huygen will collect quantitative data in these same environments.  
=== WHAT ===
After a few months of data gathering, we will align, analyze and interpret the quantitative and qualitative results to discover new insights into the meaning of a healthy environment. Together with all the different stakeholders, we will design interventions to boost the quality of the patient and staff experience in these environments. We expect these insights and interventions to not only be relevant to our specific research location, but also to other healthcare facilities that are dealing with similar challenges. 
== Challenge at Hasselt University - Circular façade ==
=== WHY ===
A façade is the outside or all of the external faces of a building. Along with the roof, it is one of the most important elements of a building, since it acts as the primary barrier against external weather and climate elements. People link a façade with something that only adds to the aesthetic factor of a building structure but the potential of a façade in architecture is much more than that.  Buildings are responsible for almost 40% of global carbon emissions and 50% of global material use. Façades can play a key role in the transformation to a sustainable built environment. 
=== HOW ===
So how can we design façades that tackle global warming, health and wellbeing, and resource impacts to deliver quality infrastructure — a critical need for our planet and communities. Students from the departments of architecture, industrial engineering and economics will team up with our engineering partner Huygen to investigate how we can create this façade system. We start from the existing Webo façade panel: how circular is it now, what elements can be added or need to be transformed. We will be using the Active8-Planet matrix as a guiding tool to generate a wide perspective on this challenge. We will also explore the influence of business models in supporting this goal.
=== WHAT ===
In our research we want to understand the role of a façade in generating a positive impact on future society, both social and ecological, on the local scale but also on a global scale, including its economic feasibility. 
== Challenge at Halmstad University - Who will own your mobility experience in a circular economy? ==
=== WHY ===
There is an urgent, unequivocal need for climate action, and one important aspect where we need to make a change is mobility. From a sustainability perspective, shared and combined ownership is a reasonable direction, but it is not clear what the experience of ownership will look like. At the same time, we are more mobile than ever before, and the pandemic has taught us that many jobs can be performed from any location. Yet, as the world opens up more, it is also important to better understand how mobility can be made more sustainable so that we can harness the benefits of the increasing mobility. Therefore, this challenge deals with ownership of mobility in a circular economy.  
=== HOW ===
Together in a team with Volvo Cars, four students from the Digital design and innovation bachelor program and researchers in informatics and design, we will try to understand the challenge of creating a new, sustainable mobility experience. The team will perform workshops and interviews with different stakeholders, such as employees at Volvo Cars, citizens in various Swedish cities (such as Halmstad, Helsingborg and Göteborg). The team will also work with critical techniques such as design fiction and critical design, and create and evaluate prototypes in order to better understand the possibilities for sustainable mobility and ownership in a circular economy.  
=== WHAT ===
The aim is to better understand how mobility ownership in a circular economy can look like in the future, and what challenges there are to sustainable mobility. The main focus is on qualitative insights into the experience of mobility, as well as a critical perspective of future possibilities. The perspective is strategic, and the contribution is relevant for anyone researching or designing mobility.
== Challenge at University of Ljubljana - Mobility as a service ==
=== WHY ===
As we move towards a (more) sustainable future, we must not only question the "big picture" and current political and economic systems, but also rethink our daily practices and how we live our lives on a much more mundane and smaller scale. In a very literal sense, the way we live our daily lives is also related to how we move from one place to another, from our homes to the office, to the mall, to our friends’ houses or to the airport. Especially in urban areas, the mobility flows created by our daily movements bring many challenges, from spatial issues to air quality. In general, people only use their own cars about five percent of the time, while for the remaining 95%, the vehicles are immobile.  We believe it is time to challenge this and think of mobility not just in terms of cars, buses, trains, or planes, but in terms of services. 
=== HOW ===
To understand how people think about and practice mobility, we will approach our research horizontally, starting by asking very general questions, such as What is mobility? Why do people want to own a car - and why they don’t? Is there a growing number of people who do not own a car? 

 The collaboration between a team of anthropologists and the developers of a car sharing platform/app will take a very interdisciplinary approach, looking for new ways to combine qualitative and quantitative research approaches, and how to combine Big Data and Thick Data to deepen the research findings. 
=== WHAT ===
The main goal of our short ethnographic research is to understand the pull and push factors in the decision to use car sharing services in Ljubljana. We want to use our horizontal findings on why people choose to use or not to use a car sharing service for further steps in the development of the service and the mobile application.

People-centred development

2021-12-09T13:46:26Z

Admin: /* Mapping the Approach */

The key idea of people-centred development is that people, as ‘end-users’ or customers, should be included in making or improving products and services. There are a number of tools and techniques available that allow researchers, designers, and engineers to work with people throughout the design and development process. There are four phases – or basic steps – of the people-centred development:
#The first step is '''[[identification]]''', where we define whose problems are actually being solved or who are the people in focus.
#In the second step, we carry out '''[[research]]''' and analyse their needs, using and combining different approaches, from the social sciences and humanities. In this way, we learn about people’s everyday experiences, practices and habits to find out what they need and want.
#The third step is '''[[interpretation]]'''. On the basis of research findings and in cooperation with the developers we prepare recommendations for design and development.
#The fourth step, '''[[design, development and testing]]''', assures optimal user experience. In this phase, when we already have a prototype of the product or service, the central question is why and how - and if at all - the newly created solutions are relevant, important and meaningful to people.
The people-centred approach in design and development attempts to make a move from the mindset of engineers, designers and researchers to the specific needs and experiences of people. In this approach, people play an important part in the innovation, design, co-creation, and testing of solutions. The approach has been tried by numerous international companies. In the 1970s Xerox relied on a people-centred approach to improve the usability of their first photocopying machine; in the 1990s, Boeing employed ethnography to design the 787 Dreamliner aircraft, and Microsoft used it to improve their operating system. In the new millennium, several other companies, including Intel, Google, General Motors, Motorola, Nissan, and Volvo, started to hire social scientists and use people-centred approaches for the design and development of their products and services.
== The Four Basic Steps ==
How does the people-centred approach function in practice? We divide it into four basic steps (see Figure 1). The first step is identification, where we define whose problems are actually being solved or who are the people in focus. In the second step, we carry out research and analyse their needs, using and combining different approaches, from interviews, focus groups and participant observation to surveys and experiments. In this way, we learn about people’s everyday experiences, practices and habits to find out what they need and want. In this process we do not perceive people as research subjects; instead, we treat them as colleagues and co-creators. We encourage them to creatively participate in decisions towards concrete solutions. The third step is interpretation. On the basis of research findings and in cooperation with the developers we prepare recommendations for improving the design. The key idea of people-centred design and development is that people can - and should be - included in this part of the design process as well, not only acting as informants to the researchers, but as partners in the creative process.

There are a number of tools and techniques available that allow researchers, designers, and engineers to work with people throughout the design and development process. The fourth step, design, development and testing, assures optimal user experience. In this phase, when we already have a prototype of the product or service, the central question is why and how - and if at all - the newly created solutions are relevant, important and meaningful to people. We test the prototypes with people and use different techniques to assess their suitability and overall people-friendliness. Based on the results, we prepare recommendations for improvements.

People-centred development is an iterative process, which means that we continuously return to users of products or services to repeatedly ask questions that shed light on how our solution meets their needs and desires. In addition to listening attentively, researchers observe what co-creators do and how they interact with technologies or each other, researchers might even live with research participants for a while to learn about their daily habits and practices. They use techniques that transform research participants into active co-creators or collaborators, they let them take the lead and they learn from them to find out how new solutions, products and services, co-created with the people and for the people, could improve their lives.

== Mapping the Approach ==
A useful tool and starting point for making sense of the various cross-cutting fields of study and the practices, research approaches and methods of people-centred development is Elizabeth Sanders’ “Map of Design Research” (Sanders 2006; 2008). In her map (see Figure 2), Sanders defines existing design research types/approaches as “zones” (large circles), “clusters” (larger bubbles within zones that signify the existence and support of professional organisations), and “bubbles” (smaller, not yet supported by professional organisations). They are positioned along two dimensions. The vertical dimension is defined by approach (research-led or design-led), whereas “the research-led perspective has the longest history and has been driven by applied psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists, and engineers” <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2008. Co-creation and the New Landscapes of Design. CoDesign 4 (1): 5-18: 13.</ref> . The horizontal dimension portrays the “mindsets of those who practice and teach design research” <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2006. Design Research in 2006. Design Research Quarterly, 1 (1): 1-8: 5.</ref> .

In continuation (see Figure 3), Sanders overlays “People-Centered Innovation” [1] on the map of design research. As is evident from Figure 3, People-centred innovation (development) leans towards the participatory model, where “users” become partners (“active co-creators”) in the design/development process. She identifies three main research types: Applied Ethnography, [[participatory design|Participatory Design]], and Lead-User Innovation.

Sanders first presented the map in 2006 as a “cognitive collage” of design research that was still taking shape <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2006. Design Research in 2006. Design Research Quarterly, 1 (1): 1-8: 4.</ref> (Sanders 2006: 4). She subsequently altered some details <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2008. Co-creation and the New Landscapes of Design. CoDesign 4 (1): 5-18.</ref> and invited others to work on the map from their perspectives. From our standpoint - and taking into account the literature published in the 10 years after the first publication of Sanders’ map - we might also add to this overview the more recent and expanding field of Design Anthropology, placing it at the intersection of the People-Centred Innovation and User-Centred Design zones between Expert and Participatory Mindsets, leaning towards Research-Led approaches.

Another way of mapping design research is provided by Hanington’s <ref>Hanington, Bruce M. 2010. Relevant and Rigorous: Human-Centered Research and Design Education. Design Issues 26 (3): 18-26: 21.</ref> “Model of Design Research”, as taught at Carnegie Mellon University (see Figure 4). Instead of aligning them along with the specific models of research- or design-led dimensions, this model integrates “methods and creative development through specific phases of exploratory, generative, and evaluative research and design”, whereby each phase is characterised “by approaches, while not limited by specific methods” <ref>Hanington, Bruce M. 2010. Relevant and Rigorous: Human-Centered Research and Design Education. Design Issues 26 (3): 18-26: 21.</ref> .

This model gives us a simple but efficient visual representation of a people-centred design and development process. We can see that a people-centred design project will develop through three interconnected phases, the exploratory, generative, and evaluative phase. In each phase, the design team chooses different approaches and methods to achieve set goals.

We can see that preparing for a people-centred design or development study involves analysing existing research - theoretical or applied - that has dealt in some way with the issues raised by the prospective client. This will aid the researcher to become more knowledgeable of how analogous issues and problems have been discussed. This is the first step towards reconfiguring the questions and needs of the client into ethnographic, people-centred research problems (step 2).

== Traditional vs. people-centred research ==
How does the people-centred development research differ from “traditional” research? In the case of traditional “theoretical” research, researchers themselves often identify and define the questions that they wish to examine. This however does not take place in a vacuum, as a researcher often takes into account current circumstances, existing research concerning the proposed object of analysis as well as the feasibility of funding.

People-centred development research by definition involves studies that are commissioned and financed by a client that wishes to shed light on a specific problem or issue - be they from the private or public sector. This means that while the study is rooted in the same theoretical and methodological traditions as theoretical research, it is framed by the issues of the client. As <ref>Pink, Sarah, and Jennifer Morgan. 2013. Short-term Ethnography: Intense Routes to Knowing. Symbolic Interaction 36 (3): 351–361.</ref> explain, conducting research in such situations is not so much about the use of new techniques and technologies but about using them in different ways.

In addition, as <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Monique Lambert. 2009. Working in Corporate Jungles: Reflections on Ethnographic Praxis in Industry. In Ethnography and the Corporate Encounter: Reflections on Research in and of Corporations, ed. Melissa Cefkin. New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books. Pp. 95-133.</ref> argue, it is important to keep in mind that the relationship between researchers and funders in the case of theoretical or people-centred development research differs in a fundamental way. In the case of conventional research, the relationship between the researcher and the funding body virtually ceases upon the disbursement of funds. The researcher is required to submit interim and final reports to the funding organization, but from the moment of funding, the researcher has a great deal of latitude to conduct the study as she or he sees fit.

People-centred development research initiates communication and negotiation between the client and researcher the sorts of questions to pursue. Sometimes these needs are not necessarily clearly articulated by the client, <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Monique Lambert. 2009. Working in Corporate Jungles: Reflections on Ethnographic Praxis in Industry. In Ethnography and the Corporate Encounter: Reflections on Research in and of Corporations, ed. Melissa Cefkin. New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books. Pp. 95-133.</ref> explain how their client requested that they study “the people stuff”. Communications and negotiations between clients and researchers can continue intermittently through the course of the study or project.
== Exercises ==
=== How to use this map ===
Thinking about people-centred research and practice in terms of a map can facilitate our orientation within the vast and entangled field of people- (human) centred design and development. When you read an article, a book chapter, or a monograph on people-centred design, approaches, methods, and tools, analyse the text along the two dimensions. Is the approach more research- or design-led? Are users actively participating in product or service development, or are they informants providing information? There is no “wrong” or “right” here - as design and development researchers, we will inevitably use a number of methods within a single project. Some of these methods might require less creative involvement from the people we are working with, while other techniques will transform some of the research participants into research partners. It is true, however, that different methods or techniques yield different results and insights. In continuation, you may consider what kind of knowledge was made available by opting for a particular approach in a particular example (e.g. a text you were reading) and how that could change if the author chose a different perspective or method?

=== Win an argument with your sceptical boss ===
You can do this exercise in pairs, where one person takes the role of the manager who is not convinced that ethnography might do their company any good and the other person is the anthropologist commissioned to carry out a people-centred design and development project. Alternatively, you can do the exercise individually by writing down your responses to the eight questions/statements. If you are already starting your work on an Active8 challenge, build your arguments on that particular case. Otherwise, think of an imaginary project you might be working on.

Read <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Brinda Dalal. 2006. Persuasive Encounters: Ethnography in the Corporation. Field Methods 18 (4): 1-24.</ref> (NOTE: reading this text will equally benefit industry representatives and the engaged students.) While reading, think about how the individual management concerns relate to your own case study or project (real or imaginary). Try to find your own examples and lean on your own experience, rather than repeating the cases presented in the article. Use the literature you have already read to provide you with similar cases that you can use to support your arguments.

Now, respond to the statements your manager makes or questions they ask:

#This takes too long.
#This costs too much.
#Don’t bother. We can do this faster and cheaper with market research and [[focus group]]s.
#Couldn’t I just go myself and watch for a while?
#You can’t generalise from this.
#You can’t quantify this.
#This isn’t scientific.
#What kind of results can you give me?

== Cases ==
=== Anna Kirah: Co-creation as a key to success ===
Anna Kirah, who has lived and worked in the USA and now in Norway, is one of the pioneers of the people-centred development approach. At the beginning of her career at Boeing and Microsoft, she worked primarily as a design anthropologist and studied people's habits, lifestyles and life stages. Now she is focused on the strategic processes of change in organizations and is active as a consultant in management teams. She emphasises co-creation in her work. She believes the key to success in developing products and services lies in taking into account of people who are intended to use them. They should be involved in designing new solutions at all stages of development processes – from conception to implementation.

In the 1990s Anna Kirah began her career linking anthropology, psychology and design at the Boeing company, where she was initially hired to distribute questionnaires on international flights. Boeing wanted to find out how they could improve passengers’ satisfaction and use findings from the study for the development of their new 787 Dreamliner aircraft. The main problem with the questionnaire-based survey was that the passengers were only presented with questions of interest to the company. The company centred approach meant that issues of concern to passengers were overlooked.

Anna Kirah proposed supplementing the surveys with qualitative and ethnographic methods using interviews and participant observation. She began to observe passengers and converse with them, which enabled her to hear and understand "first-hand" the sort of problems they actually face. She noticed, for example, that many people had trouble opening the overhead luggage bin since the opening levers were mounted quite high. Shorter people had to stretch, stand on seats or ask taller passengers to assist them. Such a study, in which passengers were able to present actual experiences and propose solutions to concrete problems proved to be much more relevant than only using the "measurement of satisfaction" through questionnaires and was continued by Boeing. On the basis of anthropological and people-centred approaches, which combined questionnaires and ethnography, Boeing managed to develop an airplane that is more human-friendly and convenient for passengers. 
=== Managing expectations ===
While researchers might feel their wings are being clipped when starting research for a client in an industry or business setting, managers and company staff may feel that a people-centred approach is wasting their time and money. Weget to the specifics of adjusting the research methods in Step 2, but first we look at how ethnographers working in the industry can address scepticism from their clients and co-workers? In their article, <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Brinda Dalal. 2006. Persuasive Encounters: Ethnography in the Corporation. Field Methods 18 (4): 1-24.</ref> tackle some of the major concerns in doing ethnography in corporate settings and propose strategies for dealing with them. We summarize some of them:

#“This takes too long!” Well, it can, but not necessarily. Jordan and Dalal <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Brinda Dalal. 2006. Persuasive Encounters: Ethnography in the Corporation. Field Methods 18 (4): 1-24.</ref> describe how their short research provided useful (and relatively inexpensive) advice for moving a call centre with a few hundred employees to a new, rural location. However, they note that it is realistic to expect that longer-lasting field research will produce deeper insights. A longer time-frame allows research to tackle systemic problems.
#“Don’t bother. We can do this faster and cheaper with market research and focus groups.” Jordan and Dalal <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Brinda Dalal. 2006. Persuasive Encounters: Ethnography in the Corporation. Field Methods 18 (4): 1-24.</ref> argue that market research and ethnography are complementary. While market research is primarily concerned with making business decisions and forecasting the size of the market, ethnography is concerned with design decisions that are based on a true understanding of users’ needs. Focus groups, brainstorming and surveys are most common when it comes to gathering opinions and attitudes, and are attractive to managers as recognised, relatively inexpensive, methods with a predictable and short timetable. Market researchers themselves have recognised the limited potential of focus groups: there is a big difference between what people say and what people do, what they think and what they feel. (And it is “not that people are deliberately deceptive but rather that memory is notoriously unreliable” <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Brinda Dalal. 2006. Persuasive Encounters: Ethnography in the Corporation. Field Methods 18 (4): 1-24: 7.</ref> ) A focus group is unlikely to give managers the data they are looking for <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Brinda Dalal. 2006. Persuasive Encounters: Ethnography in the Corporation. Field Methods 18 (4): 1-24: 8.</ref> .
#“Couldn’t I just go myself and watch for a while?” As qualitative researchers would know, ethnographic research “requires years of theoretically grounded training and practical experience and involves systematic data collection and rigorous analysis”. These things tend to be “invisible to the person casually observing an ethnographer at work” <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Brinda Dalal. 2006. Persuasive Encounters: Ethnography in the Corporation. Field Methods 18 (4): 1-24: 10.</ref> . Jordan and Dalal use the following steps to show and explain the value of their expertise: choose projects where customers are in focus, ask people who understand their work or have seen its results to vouch for their quality in writing, and they try to involve managers in field visits before, during and after.
#“You can’t generalize from this!” The fear that the results from an ethnographic field study cannot be generalised is one of the most deep-reaching objections you will encounter from managers <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Brinda Dalal. 2006. Persuasive Encounters: Ethnography in the Corporation. Field Methods 18 (4): 1-24:7.</ref> .
#The basic strategy the authors use is to provide evidence that the findings apply beyond the field site e.g. their own prior experience of the phenomena of interest, doing literature triangulation, finding similar cases in the ethnographic community, or carrying out “ethnographic probes”—brief additional research.
<h2>References</h2>

People-centred development

2021-12-09T13:45:13Z

Admin: /* Mapping the Approach */

The key idea of people-centred development is that people, as ‘end-users’ or customers, should be included in making or improving products and services. There are a number of tools and techniques available that allow researchers, designers, and engineers to work with people throughout the design and development process. There are four phases – or basic steps – of the people-centred development:
#The first step is '''[[identification]]''', where we define whose problems are actually being solved or who are the people in focus.
#In the second step, we carry out '''[[research]]''' and analyse their needs, using and combining different approaches, from the social sciences and humanities. In this way, we learn about people’s everyday experiences, practices and habits to find out what they need and want.
#The third step is '''[[interpretation]]'''. On the basis of research findings and in cooperation with the developers we prepare recommendations for design and development.
#The fourth step, '''[[design, development and testing]]''', assures optimal user experience. In this phase, when we already have a prototype of the product or service, the central question is why and how - and if at all - the newly created solutions are relevant, important and meaningful to people.
The people-centred approach in design and development attempts to make a move from the mindset of engineers, designers and researchers to the specific needs and experiences of people. In this approach, people play an important part in the innovation, design, co-creation, and testing of solutions. The approach has been tried by numerous international companies. In the 1970s Xerox relied on a people-centred approach to improve the usability of their first photocopying machine; in the 1990s, Boeing employed ethnography to design the 787 Dreamliner aircraft, and Microsoft used it to improve their operating system. In the new millennium, several other companies, including Intel, Google, General Motors, Motorola, Nissan, and Volvo, started to hire social scientists and use people-centred approaches for the design and development of their products and services.
== The Four Basic Steps ==
How does the people-centred approach function in practice? We divide it into four basic steps (see Figure 1). The first step is identification, where we define whose problems are actually being solved or who are the people in focus. In the second step, we carry out research and analyse their needs, using and combining different approaches, from interviews, focus groups and participant observation to surveys and experiments. In this way, we learn about people’s everyday experiences, practices and habits to find out what they need and want. In this process we do not perceive people as research subjects; instead, we treat them as colleagues and co-creators. We encourage them to creatively participate in decisions towards concrete solutions. The third step is interpretation. On the basis of research findings and in cooperation with the developers we prepare recommendations for improving the design. The key idea of people-centred design and development is that people can - and should be - included in this part of the design process as well, not only acting as informants to the researchers, but as partners in the creative process.

There are a number of tools and techniques available that allow researchers, designers, and engineers to work with people throughout the design and development process. The fourth step, design, development and testing, assures optimal user experience. In this phase, when we already have a prototype of the product or service, the central question is why and how - and if at all - the newly created solutions are relevant, important and meaningful to people. We test the prototypes with people and use different techniques to assess their suitability and overall people-friendliness. Based on the results, we prepare recommendations for improvements.

People-centred development is an iterative process, which means that we continuously return to users of products or services to repeatedly ask questions that shed light on how our solution meets their needs and desires. In addition to listening attentively, researchers observe what co-creators do and how they interact with technologies or each other, researchers might even live with research participants for a while to learn about their daily habits and practices. They use techniques that transform research participants into active co-creators or collaborators, they let them take the lead and they learn from them to find out how new solutions, products and services, co-created with the people and for the people, could improve their lives.

== Mapping the Approach ==
A useful tool and starting point for making sense of the various cross-cutting fields of study and the practices, research approaches and methods of people-centred development is Elizabeth Sanders’ “Map of Design Research” (Sanders 2006; 2008). In her map (see Figure 2), Sanders defines existing design research types/approaches as “zones” (large circles), “clusters” (larger bubbles within zones that signify the existence and support of professional organisations), and “bubbles” (smaller, not yet supported by professional organisations). They are positioned along two dimensions. The vertical dimension is defined by approach (research-led or design-led), whereas “the research-led perspective has the longest history and has been driven by applied psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists, and engineers” <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2008. Co-creation and the New Landscapes of Design. CoDesign 4 (1): 5-18: 13.</ref> . The horizontal dimension portrays the “mindsets of those who practice and teach design research” <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2006. Design Research in 2006. Design Research Quarterly, 1 (1): 1-8: 5.</ref> .

In continuation (see Figure 3), Sanders overlays “People-Centered Innovation” [1] on the map of design research. As is evident from Figure 3, People-centred innovation (development) leans towards the participatory model, where “users” become partners (“active co-creators”) in the design/development process. She identifies three main research types: Applied Ethnography, [[https://wiki.active8-planet.eu/index.php/Participatory design|Participatory Design]], and Lead-User Innovation.

Sanders first presented the map in 2006 as a “cognitive collage” of design research that was still taking shape <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2006. Design Research in 2006. Design Research Quarterly, 1 (1): 1-8: 4.</ref> (Sanders 2006: 4). She subsequently altered some details <ref>Sanders, Elizabeth B. N. 2008. Co-creation and the New Landscapes of Design. CoDesign 4 (1): 5-18.</ref> and invited others to work on the map from their perspectives. From our standpoint - and taking into account the literature published in the 10 years after the first publication of Sanders’ map - we might also add to this overview the more recent and expanding field of Design Anthropology, placing it at the intersection of the People-Centred Innovation and User-Centred Design zones between Expert and Participatory Mindsets, leaning towards Research-Led approaches.

Another way of mapping design research is provided by Hanington’s <ref>Hanington, Bruce M. 2010. Relevant and Rigorous: Human-Centered Research and Design Education. Design Issues 26 (3): 18-26: 21.</ref> “Model of Design Research”, as taught at Carnegie Mellon University (see Figure 4). Instead of aligning them along with the specific models of research- or design-led dimensions, this model integrates “methods and creative development through specific phases of exploratory, generative, and evaluative research and design”, whereby each phase is characterised “by approaches, while not limited by specific methods” <ref>Hanington, Bruce M. 2010. Relevant and Rigorous: Human-Centered Research and Design Education. Design Issues 26 (3): 18-26: 21.</ref> .

This model gives us a simple but efficient visual representation of a people-centred design and development process. We can see that a people-centred design project will develop through three interconnected phases, the exploratory, generative, and evaluative phase. In each phase, the design team chooses different approaches and methods to achieve set goals.

We can see that preparing for a people-centred design or development study involves analysing existing research - theoretical or applied - that has dealt in some way with the issues raised by the prospective client. This will aid the researcher to become more knowledgeable of how analogous issues and problems have been discussed. This is the first step towards reconfiguring the questions and needs of the client into ethnographic, people-centred research problems (step 2).

== Traditional vs. people-centred research ==
How does the people-centred development research differ from “traditional” research? In the case of traditional “theoretical” research, researchers themselves often identify and define the questions that they wish to examine. This however does not take place in a vacuum, as a researcher often takes into account current circumstances, existing research concerning the proposed object of analysis as well as the feasibility of funding.

People-centred development research by definition involves studies that are commissioned and financed by a client that wishes to shed light on a specific problem or issue - be they from the private or public sector. This means that while the study is rooted in the same theoretical and methodological traditions as theoretical research, it is framed by the issues of the client. As <ref>Pink, Sarah, and Jennifer Morgan. 2013. Short-term Ethnography: Intense Routes to Knowing. Symbolic Interaction 36 (3): 351–361.</ref> explain, conducting research in such situations is not so much about the use of new techniques and technologies but about using them in different ways.

In addition, as <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Monique Lambert. 2009. Working in Corporate Jungles: Reflections on Ethnographic Praxis in Industry. In Ethnography and the Corporate Encounter: Reflections on Research in and of Corporations, ed. Melissa Cefkin. New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books. Pp. 95-133.</ref> argue, it is important to keep in mind that the relationship between researchers and funders in the case of theoretical or people-centred development research differs in a fundamental way. In the case of conventional research, the relationship between the researcher and the funding body virtually ceases upon the disbursement of funds. The researcher is required to submit interim and final reports to the funding organization, but from the moment of funding, the researcher has a great deal of latitude to conduct the study as she or he sees fit.

People-centred development research initiates communication and negotiation between the client and researcher the sorts of questions to pursue. Sometimes these needs are not necessarily clearly articulated by the client, <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Monique Lambert. 2009. Working in Corporate Jungles: Reflections on Ethnographic Praxis in Industry. In Ethnography and the Corporate Encounter: Reflections on Research in and of Corporations, ed. Melissa Cefkin. New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books. Pp. 95-133.</ref> explain how their client requested that they study “the people stuff”. Communications and negotiations between clients and researchers can continue intermittently through the course of the study or project.
== Exercises ==
=== How to use this map ===
Thinking about people-centred research and practice in terms of a map can facilitate our orientation within the vast and entangled field of people- (human) centred design and development. When you read an article, a book chapter, or a monograph on people-centred design, approaches, methods, and tools, analyse the text along the two dimensions. Is the approach more research- or design-led? Are users actively participating in product or service development, or are they informants providing information? There is no “wrong” or “right” here - as design and development researchers, we will inevitably use a number of methods within a single project. Some of these methods might require less creative involvement from the people we are working with, while other techniques will transform some of the research participants into research partners. It is true, however, that different methods or techniques yield different results and insights. In continuation, you may consider what kind of knowledge was made available by opting for a particular approach in a particular example (e.g. a text you were reading) and how that could change if the author chose a different perspective or method?

=== Win an argument with your sceptical boss ===
You can do this exercise in pairs, where one person takes the role of the manager who is not convinced that ethnography might do their company any good and the other person is the anthropologist commissioned to carry out a people-centred design and development project. Alternatively, you can do the exercise individually by writing down your responses to the eight questions/statements. If you are already starting your work on an Active8 challenge, build your arguments on that particular case. Otherwise, think of an imaginary project you might be working on.

Read <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Brinda Dalal. 2006. Persuasive Encounters: Ethnography in the Corporation. Field Methods 18 (4): 1-24.</ref> (NOTE: reading this text will equally benefit industry representatives and the engaged students.) While reading, think about how the individual management concerns relate to your own case study or project (real or imaginary). Try to find your own examples and lean on your own experience, rather than repeating the cases presented in the article. Use the literature you have already read to provide you with similar cases that you can use to support your arguments.

Now, respond to the statements your manager makes or questions they ask:

#This takes too long.
#This costs too much.
#Don’t bother. We can do this faster and cheaper with market research and [[focus group]]s.
#Couldn’t I just go myself and watch for a while?
#You can’t generalise from this.
#You can’t quantify this.
#This isn’t scientific.
#What kind of results can you give me?

== Cases ==
=== Anna Kirah: Co-creation as a key to success ===
Anna Kirah, who has lived and worked in the USA and now in Norway, is one of the pioneers of the people-centred development approach. At the beginning of her career at Boeing and Microsoft, she worked primarily as a design anthropologist and studied people's habits, lifestyles and life stages. Now she is focused on the strategic processes of change in organizations and is active as a consultant in management teams. She emphasises co-creation in her work. She believes the key to success in developing products and services lies in taking into account of people who are intended to use them. They should be involved in designing new solutions at all stages of development processes – from conception to implementation.

In the 1990s Anna Kirah began her career linking anthropology, psychology and design at the Boeing company, where she was initially hired to distribute questionnaires on international flights. Boeing wanted to find out how they could improve passengers’ satisfaction and use findings from the study for the development of their new 787 Dreamliner aircraft. The main problem with the questionnaire-based survey was that the passengers were only presented with questions of interest to the company. The company centred approach meant that issues of concern to passengers were overlooked.

Anna Kirah proposed supplementing the surveys with qualitative and ethnographic methods using interviews and participant observation. She began to observe passengers and converse with them, which enabled her to hear and understand "first-hand" the sort of problems they actually face. She noticed, for example, that many people had trouble opening the overhead luggage bin since the opening levers were mounted quite high. Shorter people had to stretch, stand on seats or ask taller passengers to assist them. Such a study, in which passengers were able to present actual experiences and propose solutions to concrete problems proved to be much more relevant than only using the "measurement of satisfaction" through questionnaires and was continued by Boeing. On the basis of anthropological and people-centred approaches, which combined questionnaires and ethnography, Boeing managed to develop an airplane that is more human-friendly and convenient for passengers. 
=== Managing expectations ===
While researchers might feel their wings are being clipped when starting research for a client in an industry or business setting, managers and company staff may feel that a people-centred approach is wasting their time and money. Weget to the specifics of adjusting the research methods in Step 2, but first we look at how ethnographers working in the industry can address scepticism from their clients and co-workers? In their article, <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Brinda Dalal. 2006. Persuasive Encounters: Ethnography in the Corporation. Field Methods 18 (4): 1-24.</ref> tackle some of the major concerns in doing ethnography in corporate settings and propose strategies for dealing with them. We summarize some of them:

#“This takes too long!” Well, it can, but not necessarily. Jordan and Dalal <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Brinda Dalal. 2006. Persuasive Encounters: Ethnography in the Corporation. Field Methods 18 (4): 1-24.</ref> describe how their short research provided useful (and relatively inexpensive) advice for moving a call centre with a few hundred employees to a new, rural location. However, they note that it is realistic to expect that longer-lasting field research will produce deeper insights. A longer time-frame allows research to tackle systemic problems.
#“Don’t bother. We can do this faster and cheaper with market research and focus groups.” Jordan and Dalal <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Brinda Dalal. 2006. Persuasive Encounters: Ethnography in the Corporation. Field Methods 18 (4): 1-24.</ref> argue that market research and ethnography are complementary. While market research is primarily concerned with making business decisions and forecasting the size of the market, ethnography is concerned with design decisions that are based on a true understanding of users’ needs. Focus groups, brainstorming and surveys are most common when it comes to gathering opinions and attitudes, and are attractive to managers as recognised, relatively inexpensive, methods with a predictable and short timetable. Market researchers themselves have recognised the limited potential of focus groups: there is a big difference between what people say and what people do, what they think and what they feel. (And it is “not that people are deliberately deceptive but rather that memory is notoriously unreliable” <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Brinda Dalal. 2006. Persuasive Encounters: Ethnography in the Corporation. Field Methods 18 (4): 1-24: 7.</ref> ) A focus group is unlikely to give managers the data they are looking for <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Brinda Dalal. 2006. Persuasive Encounters: Ethnography in the Corporation. Field Methods 18 (4): 1-24: 8.</ref> .
#“Couldn’t I just go myself and watch for a while?” As qualitative researchers would know, ethnographic research “requires years of theoretically grounded training and practical experience and involves systematic data collection and rigorous analysis”. These things tend to be “invisible to the person casually observing an ethnographer at work” <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Brinda Dalal. 2006. Persuasive Encounters: Ethnography in the Corporation. Field Methods 18 (4): 1-24: 10.</ref> . Jordan and Dalal use the following steps to show and explain the value of their expertise: choose projects where customers are in focus, ask people who understand their work or have seen its results to vouch for their quality in writing, and they try to involve managers in field visits before, during and after.
#“You can’t generalize from this!” The fear that the results from an ethnographic field study cannot be generalised is one of the most deep-reaching objections you will encounter from managers <ref>Jordan, Brigitte, and Brinda Dalal. 2006. Persuasive Encounters: Ethnography in the Corporation. Field Methods 18 (4): 1-24:7.</ref> .
#The basic strategy the authors use is to provide evidence that the findings apply beyond the field site e.g. their own prior experience of the phenomena of interest, doing literature triangulation, finding similar cases in the ethnographic community, or carrying out “ethnographic probes”—brief additional research.
<h2>References</h2>

Participatory design

2021-12-09T13:43:50Z

Admin:

Participatory design (PD) is an approach to design that aims to involve all stakeholders in active design decision making. The approach has different roots in different parts of the world. The Scandinavian approach to PD has its roots in the 1970's political and civil rights movements <ref>Bødker, S., Grønbæk, K., & Kyng, M. (1993). Cooperative design: techniques and experiences from the Scandinavian scene. In D. Schuler & A. Namioka (Eds.), Participatory design: Principles and practices (pp. 157-175). Hillsdale, NJ, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.</ref>  . The approach was a response to the expansion of digital technology in the workplace, and experiences of that technology having a negative effect on the work environment <ref>Robertson, T., & Simonsen, J. (2012). Participatory Design: an Introduction. In J. Simonsen & T. Robertson (Eds.), Routledge international handbook of participatory design (pp. 1-17). New York, NY, USA: Routledge International Handbooks.</ref>  . The values that were important then are still emphasised today, though in different contexts. 
 
Some underlying values of PD include: 
 
#Participation is considered a right. All stakeholders who are to be affected by the digital service ought to be involved in the design process in a meaningful way. 
#The users is the expert. While not an expert of design or development, the user is considered the expert of their use situation and is therefore of vital importance to involve in the design process. 
#Design should enhance. The aim of design should be to improve a situation, and not to introduce technology that negatively affects the users. 
#Design is situated. Design emerges from use, and therefore design activities should be conducted in use-like settings. Therefore, PD works a lot with prototyping, and a lot of the research on PD is centered around tools and techniques for carrying out PD.
 
As digital technology is being designed for new contexts, PD is recognised in a wide range of disciplines. There are examples where PD is carried out in research on education (see e.g. <ref>Casanova, D., Di Napoli, R., & Leijon, M. (2017). Which space? Whose space? An experience in involving students and teachers in space design. Teaching in Higher Education, 1-16. doi:10.1080/13562517.2017.1414785</ref>  and <ref>Könings, K. D., & McKenney, S. (2017). Participatory design of (built) learning environments. European Journal of Education, 52(3), 247-252.</ref>  ) and health science (see e.g. <ref>Al-Itejawi, H. H. M., van Uden-Kraan, C. F., Vis, A. N., Nieuwenhuijzen, J. A., Hofstee, M. J. A., van Moorselaar, R. J. A., & Verdonck-de Leeuw, I. M. (2016). Development of a patient decision aid for the treatment of localised prostate cancer: a participatory design approach. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 25(7-8), 1131-1144.</ref>   and <ref>Noergaard, B., Sandvei, M., Rottmann, N., Johannessen, H., Wiil, U., Schmidt, T., & Pedersen, S. S. (2017). Development of a Web-Based Health Care Intervention for Patients With Heart Disease: Lessons Learned From a Participatory Design Study. JMIR Research Protocols, 6(5), e75. doi:10.2196/resprot.7084</ref> ), as well as many other fields. The many strengths of PD are increasingly becoming acknowledged. 
 
While PD has a lot of similarities with other approaches, it differs in some aspects, such as the setting it is usually conducted in, or the mindset towards users. The two images below illustrate how PD relates to other approaches in different ways. 
[[image:PD-design-research-Sanders.png|300px|border|Source: Sanders (2008)]]


Image 1: Source: Sanders (2008) <ref>Sanders, L. (2008). An evolving map of design practice and design research. interactions, 15(6), 13-17.</ref>

[[image:Living-Lab-and-customer-user-innovation-approach-19-Note-We-thank-Almirall-E-Lee-M.png|300px|border|PD in relation to other similar approaches]]

Image 2: Source: Almirall et al. (2012) <ref>Almirall, E., Lee, M., & Wareham, J. (2012). Mapping living labs in the landscape of innovation methodologies. Technology innovation management review, 2(9).</ref>
<h2>References</h2>

Participatory design

2021-12-09T13:39:21Z

Admin:

Participatory design (PD) is an approach to design that aims to involve all stakeholders in active design decision making. The approach has different roots in different parts of the world. The Scandinavian approach to PD has its roots in the 1970's political and civil rights movements <ref>Bødker, S., Grønbæk, K., & Kyng, M. (1993). Cooperative design: techniques and experiences from the Scandinavian scene. In D. Schuler & A. Namioka (Eds.), Participatory design: Principles and practices (pp. 157-175). Hillsdale, NJ, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.</ref>  . The approach was a response to the expansion of digital technology in the workplace, and experiences of that technology having a negative effect on the work environment <ref>Robertson, T., & Simonsen, J. (2012). Participatory Design: an Introduction. In J. Simonsen & T. Robertson (Eds.), Routledge international handbook of participatory design (pp. 1-17). New York, NY, USA: Routledge International Handbooks.</ref>  . The values that were important then are still emphasised today, though in different contexts. 
 
Some underlying values of PD include: 
 
#Participation is considered a right. All stakeholders who are to be affected by the digital service ought to be involved in the design process in a meaningful way. 
#The users is the expert. While not an expert of design or development, the user is considered the expert of their use situation and is therefore of vital importance to involve in the design process. 
#Design should enhance. The aim of design should be to improve a situation, and not to introduce technology that negatively affects the users. 
#Design is situated. Design emerges from use, and therefore design activities should be conducted in use-like settings. Therefore, PD works a lot with prototyping, and a lot of the research on PD is centered around tools and techniques for carrying out PD.
 
As digital technology is being designed for new contexts, PD is recognised in a wide range of disciplines. There are examples where PD is carried out in research on education (see e.g. <ref>Casanova, D., Di Napoli, R., & Leijon, M. (2017). Which space? Whose space? An experience in involving students and teachers in space design. Teaching in Higher Education, 1-16. doi:10.1080/13562517.2017.1414785</ref>  and <ref>Könings, K. D., & McKenney, S. (2017). Participatory design of (built) learning environments. European Journal of Education, 52(3), 247-252.</ref>  ) and health science (see e.g. <ref>Al-Itejawi, H. H. M., van Uden-Kraan, C. F., Vis, A. N., Nieuwenhuijzen, J. A., Hofstee, M. J. A., van Moorselaar, R. J. A., & Verdonck-de Leeuw, I. M. (2016). Development of a patient decision aid for the treatment of localised prostate cancer: a participatory design approach. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 25(7-8), 1131-1144.</ref>   and <ref>Noergaard, B., Sandvei, M., Rottmann, N., Johannessen, H., Wiil, U., Schmidt, T., & Pedersen, S. S. (2017). Development of a Web-Based Health Care Intervention for Patients With Heart Disease: Lessons Learned From a Participatory Design Study. JMIR Research Protocols, 6(5), e75. doi:10.2196/resprot.7084</ref> ), as well as many other fields. The many strengths of PD are increasingly becoming acknowledged. 
 
While PD has a lot of similarities with other approaches, it differs in some aspects, such as the setting it is usually conducted in, or the mindset towards users. The two images below illustrate how PD relates to other approaches in different ways. 

[[image:PD-design-research-Sanders.png|300px|border|Source: Sanders (2008)]]

<h2>References</h2>

2021-09-21T14:34:42Z

Admin:

File:Biomass Distribution Animal Kingdom.png

2021-09-21T14:32:31Z

Admin:

File:Eco Planet-centred Mindset.png

2021-09-21T14:27:38Z

Admin:

Teamwork

2021-09-14T08:28:58Z

Admin:

= Introduction =
A team is built, not given. This means that a team is not a solid construct or tool ready for use from the beginning. At the beginning, a team is not a team. Becoming a team, in fact, requires getting to know each other, getting to know each other's strengths as well as weaknesses, and using that knowledge to build on each other. This does not only require self-knowledge and reflection skills; it also takes time.

 In Active8-Planet we apply a particular understanding of teams as based on relationships between peers. In other words, team members are understood to be on an equal standing. A team made of equals, however, does not mean that everybody has the same role. Your team role is dependent on your expertise, profession and personality. For instance, the Servant Leader [link to Servant Leader wiki] plays a particular role within a team of peers, facilitating an equal playing field for all. A number of ingredients help promote peer Teamwork. These are listed below. You can also scroll further down to “Exercises” for some concrete methods you can use to first design a Team, then build a Team of peers, and lastly ensure that members remain aligned to shared goals and roles throughout teamwork.

== Intercultural Communication ==
As with all relationships, communication is a key aspect of team building. In Active8-Planet, teams are multi-generational, multi-disciplinary and multi-cultural [add wiki links to Interdisciplinary and Intergenerational Co-creation]. This brings extra challenges and opportunities. Since our teams are made up of people with all kinds of different backgrounds, it could be said that we are dealing with intercultural communication. Not only will we be learning each other's communication culture, but each team will also be developing their own new intercultural communication. Active8-Planet partner Vaike Fors writes about her experience with intercultural communication in teams of students, academic supervisors and industry partners in an article published in the first Active8-Planet newsletter. She refers to the “cinnamon bun effect” as a tool to overcome diverging views and enhance interdisciplinary team building by moving the conversation out of work-related workshops and into informal discussion groups in which shared rituals (like making coffee and eating cinnamon buns). You can read more about the “cinnamon bun effect” here [add link to A8P newsletter one: https://active8-planet.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Active8_newsletter1.pdf]

== Checking in and Checking out ==
When you are building a new team it is important to connect to all the members. Since most people nowadays are part of many different teams (families, departments, friend groups, work projects) it is important to facilitate the switch. A simple method for this is checking in and checking out. When you start a session with your team, check in. Have everyone share briefly how they are doing and feeling before getting into the topic of the session. At the end of the session, make sure there is time to have everyone again share briefly how they are doing and feeling before leaving. This way you allow for people to really connect with each other and take the time to transition into this new setting with this particular team.

== Understanding your Role in the Team ==
In many ways, all participants serve the team. To do this in a way you feel comfortable with and that benefits the team, it is important to understand your role. In Active8-Planet teamwork, this role is of course related to your function as a student, academic supervisor, or industry partner. But it also relates to your professional and educational background, your field of expertise and your personality. For instance, as social scientists, we are especially aware that our cultural and generational backgrounds are important factors shaping our role [add link to intergenerational and interdisciplinary wiki]. Sometimes you automatically take on a role that you actually do not want. Or sometimes your role can change during the course of the project. Being aware of your role in the team can help your comfort and performance. Working together with the Servant Leader [add link to Servant Leader wiki] you can address these different roles and your place in the team, including when a change might be needed.

== Equity versus Equality ==
Active8-Planet teams are multi-layered [add link to interdisciplinary/generational etc. wiki]. It is often assumed that in such teams it is important to strive for equality and to give equal help to everyone. The illustration below however shows well that what you want to achieve is equity, not equality. This requires inventorization of the different needs and adjusting help to allow all team members a similar experience.[Add picture to be found at this link: http://madewithangus.com/portfolio/equality-vs-equity/]Source: ANGUS MAGUIRE // INTERACTION INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL CHANGE [http://madewithangus.com/portfolio/equality-vs-equity/]


== Role Switching: The Student becomes the Teacher ==
In many academic and industry settings, the professional hierarchy is quite strong. In Active8-Planet, we aim to allow for each and all experiences to matter. This means that, if you are a student, you will sometimes have to step out of your student role and step up to the teachers’ role, to share your expertise and experience. At these times, the other team members will have to take the role of student, independently of their profession. For many in the team this will be a new experience and therefore it might not come naturally. It is however important to enable this capacity to shift perspectives because it facilitates every team member to bring their own valuable input to the project, for instance following the principles of intervision [add link to intervision wiki]. The Servant Leader plays a key supporting role in allowing this to happen [add link to servant leader wiki].

= Exercises =
The methods illustrated below can be used in the Team design phase (to facilitate the identification of suitable members), to enhance Team formation (to build a shared sense of belonging to a team), and during Teamwork with an established team of peers. For each exercise, you will find an indication of the steps to be taken. The indicative duration of some exercises is based on an assumed group size of four members. Working with more participants may require longer. 

== Team Design Canvas (for Team design) ==
This tool is designed to guide the recruitment of members prior to the formation of a Team. Those in charge of forming the Team ask themselves the following reflection questions:

*What complementary knowledge, skills and attitudes do we require to tackle the identified challenge/described case?
*What roles do we foresee and how are these interrelated?
*What kind of students fit (some of) these roles & why?
*What kind of academic supervisors would these students require & why?
*What kind of industry professionals would complement the team & why?
 The filled in canvas can be used to brief the person(s) who recruit team members.Once the Active8-Planet 7+1 teams are formed, the content of this exercise can facilitate Team building through shared reflection and decision-making on different roles among members. For instance, the content of this exercise could be used as input for the Strengths Game or the Team Charter tool (scroll down for details).

 [Add link to canvas in miro: https://miro.com/app/board/o9J_lz2jCzo=/]
== Strengths Game (for Team building) ==
Time: +/- 60 minutes 

 '''Step 1 Introduction''' (5 min.) A facilitator (for instance, the Servant Leader [link to Servant Leadership wiki]) shares the rules of the game with the team. 

 '''Step 2 Card round strengths '''(20 min.) Each participant picks five cards out of a pack of “strength” cards. All remaining cards are shuffled and placed, face down, on a shared stack. In turn, participants pick a sixth random card from the stack. Each participant then chooses the card that least represents their strengths and either places it in front of another participant whose strengths they feel that card represents, or places the card on a discard stack containing the cards that do not match any of the participants. The participant explains his/her choice to the group and the receiver of a strengths card can also ask questions. Participants continue picking new cards until all cards are either distributed among participants or in the discard stack. Each participant then discusses with the group the cards they have ended up with. The game closes with every participant making a final choice of the two cards that most represent their strengths.  

 '''Step 3 Card round weaknesses''' (15 min.) Repeat the same game as above, this time using a pack of “weaknesses” cards. 

 '''Step 4 Evaluation '''(10 min.) End the game with an evaluation round in which every participant shares their experiences of identifying their own strengths and weaknesses and those of other participants, as well as which round they found easier and why. 

 [Freely adapted from: Edelbroek, H., M. Mijnders & G. Post. (2018). Interdisciplinary Learning Activities. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press: pp. 67-70]

== Team Charter (for Team building) ==
The Team Charter is a Team building tool that facilitates fruitful collaboration by helping members become aware of their strengths and weaknesses. In addition to making these explicit, this tool also allows participants to discuss shared vision and goals. It is particularly indicated for shared assignments, such as a team-based research project.

 Time: +/- 60 minutes 

 '''Step 1 Introduction''' (5 min.) In the above picture, you see a charter with four boxes. In this exercise, a facilitator (for instance, the Servant Leader [link to Servant Leadership wiki]) explains to the group with the meaning of each box:My success - what each participant sees as success in a project;What others need to know about me - each participant writes their points for improvement;What do I need - what each participant needs from other team members to successfully contribute to the project;What do I add - each member writes their strengths and what they can add to the project. 

 '''Step 2 Example '''(5 min.) The facilitator starts the exercise by sharing their own filled in charter as an example and, if possible, explains to the group how it helped collaboration in a previous project.

 '''Step 3 Individual charter''' (15 min.) The facilitator asks participants to individually write down their input for each box in the charter. 

 '''Step 4 Shared charter '''(15 min.) The facilitator invites members to share the content of their individual charters with the group and to create one charter containing combined input from all members. 

 '''Step 5 Agreements''' (20 min.) The group makes decisions about how members will work together as a Team. Agreements may cover, for instance, communication styles, ways of giving feedback to each other, as well as shared and individual tasks, deadlines, etc. 

 '''Step 6 Follow-up''' (n/a) The group gets together on a regular basis to assess progress on the last agreements and to make new ones for the work ahead. Alternatively, progress can be monitored using the next exercise, Retrospective Scrum Method.

 [Freely adapted from: Edelbroek, H., M. Mijnders & G. Post. (2018). Interdisciplinary Learning Activities. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press: pp. 63-67].

== Assignments 'Back Stories' & 'Ground Rules' (for Team building) ==
Through these two assignments:

#team members will connect with a fellow team member; #they will hear the backstories of all team members and; #as a team they will establish ground rules that enable the team to create an inclusive, safe and nurturing environment for learning Time: +/- 70 minutesPart A - Discover each other’s ‘backstory’

(Time. Explanation part A and presenting duos: 5 minutes; team members interviewing each other: 10 minutes)Info for Servant Leader: Divide the group into duos. Best to do this before class. Try to match partners who are divers when it comes to gender, age, nationality, educational background etc. During class, check if the designated partners know each other. If they do, make them switch on the spot. Explain the first part of the assignment, tell them they have 10 minutes to accomplish it. Remind them to switch halfway. Best not to let team members leave the room to have a more comfortable/quiet place to talk, because you do not have enough time to allow for walking in and out.Info for team members: This assignment will help you get to know a fellow team member and present his/her backstory to the rest of class in a ‘under-a-minute pitch’. Interview your partner to get a glimpse of his/her backstory. Who is he/she? What is their background? What brought them here in this class, in this programme? You can ask all kinds of things. Be creative. If you hear something special, probe a little to get a clear picture. Try to discover as much as possible and something that is ‘out of the ordinary’ for you. This ‘remarkable’ part in your partner’s backstory needs to be something that makes your partner stand out in a positive way. Make notes to prepare yourself to present your partner’s backstory in a ‘under-a-minute-pitch’ to the rest of the class.Part B - Under-a-minute-pitches 

(Time. Under-a-minute pitches: 20 minutes)Info for Servant Leader: Ask the duos if they are ready to present. Make sure the group is positioned in such a way that everybody can hear and see all pitches. You can ask the duos to come to the front of the room, however, this takes time. Another option is to stand in a circle during the pitches. This switches things up, signifies unity, allows for an active stance and also allows everybody to see and hear everything equally. Ask people to present in duos and be sure t0 keep under a minute per person. Things can go fast and that is ok, no need for people to respond in depth to pitches, if people have questions/remarks they can ask them personally at a later time.Info for team members: Now present your partner’s backstory to the rest of class under a minute. During this pitch, you do not need to tell everything you have discovered, but be sure to tell those things you think are most important and paint a clear and positive picture of your partner.Part C – Establishing ground rules in duos

(Time. Explanation part C: 5 minutes; team members share ground rules: 10 minutes)Info for Servant Leader:Explain this part of the assignment and refer to the aim of creating a safe and nurturing learning and working group in which team members all support each other. Ask the previous duos to jointly come up with five ground rules they think/feel are important for everybody in the group to follow. Invite them to share one on one what they each need for them to feel safe in the group and what they need to be able to give and receive support. Tell the duos they have 10 minutes to come up with these ground rules and remind them of the time halfway.Info for team members: Take ten minutes with your previous partner to share what you need from/in this group to feel safe and what you need to be able to give and receive support in this group. Decide on 5 ground rules you both want to share with the rest of class and write them down in clear and concise sentences.Part D – Establishing ground rules as a group

(Time. Group dialogue on 10-12 rules: 20 minutesInfo for Servant Leader: Ask the group to join you in the circle. Standing, again, allows for a more active participation. Make sure you have a board or flip-over sheet to write on. Invite the duos to share their ground rules and write them down. You can ask team members to be quick about this. No need to explain the rules at this point. First collect all the rules. When you encounter a rule that is previously mentioned, be sure to mark this. This allows you all to see which of the rules are mentioned most. You want to work towards a list of say 10-12 rules that everybody in the group agrees upon. Including you as a teacher. This process, of deciding on the final 10-12, probably requires a little bit of probing on what is meant by a mentioned rule. This allows everybody to really get behind the same ‘picture’ of what these rules mean concretely. In the end, make sure you have the complete agreement of the group AND agreement on how to proceed if group members in the future (un)knowingly and/or (un)willingly break one of the rules. It is important to have this talk now, so you are able to refer back to it any time something happens in class that could hinder the safe and nurturing environment of the group. Finally, ask which duo would like to turn your sheet with rules into a visually pleasing remembrance that can be shared on Canvas. Share this PDF on Canvas as soon as possible.[Additional references:

- Getting started with Inclusive Teaching: https://teaching.cornell.edu/resource/getting-started-inclusive-teaching-strategies- Creating ground rules: https://teaching.cornell.edu/teaching-resources/building-inclusive-classrooms/establishing-ground-rules]
== Retrospective Scrum Method (for Teamwork) ==
 The Retrospective is a Teamwork tool from the Scrum method that helps monitor progress in Teamwork and ensure that the group remains aligned to the roles and goals of all participants. The benefits of this tool are that its essence is very simple and quick. You can build on this basic structure, depending on your needs. 

 Time: +/- 40 minutes 

 Step 1 Introduction (5 min.) In the above picture, you see six stimulating categories. In this exercise, a facilitator (for instance, the Servant Leader [link to Servant Leadership wiki]) asks participants to write down their input for each of these categories on post-it’s and stick them underneath each category. There are no wrong answers. It is good for participants to have a frame to work with, such as: “your experience in this team the past two months” OR “the scientific level of this project.” This frame will help steer participant input to the topic set by the facilitator. 

 Step 2 Sharing (20 min.) After everyone has put up their post-its, the facilitator reads each of them out loud to the group. This is a moment for people to elaborate on their input or ask for elaboration from others.

 Step 3 Follow-up (15 min.) The facilitator invites discussion with the group and decisions about any concrete actions that need to be taken based on the session. Concrete actions are written down, and pictures of the post-its with each category are taken and shared with the team for later reference. 

 [Freely adapted from: https://vitalitychicago.com/blog/improving-your-retrospectives-part-3-techniques/ ]

= References =
*Edelbroek, H. M. Mijnders, G. Post. (2018). Interdisciplinary Learning Activities. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press.

*Twente Education Model: https://www.utwente.nl/en/tom/

*VU Learn Academy, Mixed Classroom Principles: https://vu.nl/en/education/learn-academy

Teamwork

2021-09-08T07:54:18Z

Admin: /* The methods illustrated below can be used in the Team design phase (to facilitate the identification of suitable members), to enhance Team formation (to build a shared sense of belonging to a team), and during Teamwork with an established team of peers. For each exercise, you will find an indication of the steps to be taken. The indicative duration of some exercises is based on an assumed group size of four members. Working with more participants may require longer.  */

= Introduction =
A team is built, not given. This means that a team is not a solid construct or tool ready for use from the beginning. At the beginning, a team is not a team. Becoming a team, in fact, requires getting to know each other, getting to know each other's strengths as well as weaknesses, and using that knowledge to build on each other. This does not only require self-knowledge and reflection skills; it also takes time.

 In Active8-Planet we apply a particular understanding of teams as based on relationships between peers. In other words, team members are understood to be on an equal standing. A team made of equals, however, does not mean that everybody has the same role. Your team role is dependent on your expertise, profession and personality. For instance, the Servant Leader [link to Servant Leader wiki] plays a particular role within a team of peers, facilitating an equal playing field for all. A number of ingredients help promote peer Teamwork. These are listed below. You can also scroll further down to “Exercises” for some concrete methods you can use to first design a Team, then build a Team of peers, and lastly ensure that members remain aligned to shared goals and roles throughout teamwork.

 
== Intercultural Communication ==
As with all relationships, communication is a key aspect of team building. In Active8-Planet, teams are multi-generational, multi-disciplinary and multi-cultural [add wiki links to Interdisciplinary and Intergenerational Co-creation]. This brings extra challenges and opportunities. Since our teams are made up of people with all kinds of different backgrounds, it could be said that we are dealing with intercultural communication. Not only will we be learning each other's communication culture, but each team will also be developing their own new intercultural communication. Active8-Planet partner Vaike Fors writes about her experience with intercultural communication in teams of students, academic supervisors and industry partners in an article published in the first Active8-Planet newsletter. She refers to the “cinnamon bun effect” as a tool to overcome diverging views and enhance interdisciplinary team building by moving the conversation out of work-related workshops and into informal discussion groups in which shared rituals (like making coffee and eating cinnamon buns). You can read more about the “cinnamon bun effect” here [add link to A8P newsletter one: https://active8-planet.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Active8_newsletter1.pdf]

 
== Checking in and Checking out ==
When you are building a new team it is important to connect to all the members. Since most people nowadays are part of many different teams (families, departments, friend groups, work projects) it is important to facilitate the switch. A simple method for this is checking in and checking out. When you start a session with your team, check in. Have everyone share briefly how they are doing and feeling before getting into the topic of the session. At the end of the session, make sure there is time to have everyone again share briefly how they are doing and feeling before leaving. This way you allow for people to really connect with each other and take the time to transition into this new setting with this particular team.

 
== Understanding your Role in the Team ==
In many ways, all participants serve the team. To do this in a way you feel comfortable with and that benefits the team, it is important to understand your role. In Active8-Planet teamwork, this role is of course related to your function as a student, academic supervisor, or industry partner. But it also relates to your professional and educational background, your field of expertise and your personality. For instance, as social scientists, we are especially aware that our cultural and generational backgrounds are important factors shaping our role [add link to intergenerational and interdisciplinary wiki]. Sometimes you automatically take on a role that you actually do not want. Or sometimes your role can change during the course of the project. Being aware of your role in the team can help your comfort and performance. Working together with the Servant Leader [add link to Servant Leader wiki] you can address these different roles and your place in the team, including when a change might be needed.

 
== Equity versus Equality ==
Active8-Planet teams are multi-layered [add link to interdisciplinary/generational etc. wiki]. It is often assumed that in such teams it is important to strive for equality and to give equal help to everyone. The illustration below however shows well that what you want to achieve is equity, not equality. This requires inventorization of the different needs and adjusting help to allow all team members a similar experience.[Add picture to be found at this link: http://madewithangus.com/portfolio/equality-vs-equity/]Source: ANGUS MAGUIRE // INTERACTION INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL CHANGE [http://madewithangus.com/portfolio/equality-vs-equity/]
== Role Switching: The Student becomes the Teacher ==
In many academic and industry settings, the professional hierarchy is quite strong. In Active8-Planet, we aim to allow for each and all experiences to matter. This means that, if you are a student, you will sometimes have to step out of your student role and step up to the teachers’ role, to share your expertise and experience. At these times, the other team members will have to take the role of student, independently of their profession. For many in the team this will be a new experience and therefore it might not come naturally. It is however important to enable this capacity to shift perspectives because it facilitates every team member to bring their own valuable input to the project, for instance following the principles of intervision [add link to intervision wiki]. The Servant Leader plays a key supporting role in allowing this to happen [add link to servant leader wiki].

 
= Exercises =
The methods illustrated below can be used in the Team design phase (to facilitate the identification of suitable members), to enhance Team formation (to build a shared sense of belonging to a team), and during Teamwork with an established team of peers. For each exercise, you will find an indication of the steps to be taken. The indicative duration of some exercises is based on an assumed group size of four members. Working with more participants may require longer. 
 

== Team Design Canvas (for Team design) ==
This tool is designed to guide the recruitment of members prior to the formation of a Team. Those in charge of forming the Team ask themselves the following reflection questions:
*What complementary knowledge, skills and attitudes do we require to tackle the identified challenge/described case?
*What roles do we foresee and how are these interrelated?
*What kind of students fit (some of) these roles & why?
*What kind of academic supervisors would these students require & why?
*What kind of industry professionals would complement the team & why?
 The filled in canvas can be used to brief the person(s) who recruit team members.Once the Active8-Planet 7+1 teams are formed, the content of this exercise can facilitate Team building through shared reflection and decision-making on different roles among members. For instance, the content of this exercise could be used as input for the Strengths Game or the Team Charter tool (scroll down for details).

 [Add link to canvas in miro: https://miro.com/app/board/o9J_lz2jCzo=/]

 
== Strengths Game (for Team building) ==
Time: +/- 60 minutes 

 Step 1 Introduction (5 min.) A facilitator (for instance, the Servant Leader [link to Servant Leadership wiki]) shares the rules of the game with the team. 

 Step 2 Card round strengths (20 min.) Each participant picks five cards out of a pack of “strength” cards. All remaining cards are shuffled and placed, face down, on a shared stack. In turn, participants pick a sixth random card from the stack. Each participant then chooses the card that least represents their strengths and either places it in front of another participant whose strengths they feel that card represents, or places the card on a discard stack containing the cards that do not match any of the participants. The participant explains his/her choice to the group and the receiver of a strengths card can also ask questions. Participants continue picking new cards until all cards are either distributed among participants or in the discard stack. Each participant then discusses with the group the cards they have ended up with. The game closes with every participant making a final choice of the two cards that most represent their strengths.  

 Step 3 Card round weaknesses (15 min.) Repeat the same game as above, this time using a pack of “weaknesses” cards. 

 Step 4 Evaluation (10 min.) End the game with an evaluation round in which every participant shares their experiences of identifying their own strengths and weaknesses and those of other participants, as well as which round they found easier and why. 

 [Freely adapted from: Edelbroek, H., M. Mijnders & G. Post. (2018). Interdisciplinary Learning Activities. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press: pp. 67-70]

 
== Team Charter (for Team building) ==
The Team Charter is a Team building tool that facilitates fruitful collaboration by helping members become aware of their strengths and weaknesses. In addition to making these explicit, this tool also allows participants to discuss shared vision and goals. It is particularly indicated for shared assignments, such as a team-based research project.

 Time: +/- 60 minutes 

 Step 1 Introduction (5 min.) In the above picture, you see a charter with four boxes. In this exercise, a facilitator (for instance, the Servant Leader [link to Servant Leadership wiki]) explains to the group with the meaning of each box:My success - what each participant sees as success in a project;What others need to know about me - each participant writes their points for improvement;What do I need - what each participant needs from other team members to successfully contribute to the project;What do I add - each member writes their strengths and what they can add to the project. 

 Step 2 Example (5 min.) The facilitator starts the exercise by sharing their own filled in charter as an example and, if possible, explains to the group how it helped collaboration in a previous project.

 Step 3 Individual charter (15 min.) The facilitator asks participants to individually write down their input for each box in the charter. 

 Step 4 Shared charter (15 min.) The facilitator invites members to share the content of their individual charters with the group and to create one charter containing combined input from all members. 

 Step 5 Agreements (20 min.) The group makes decisions about how members will work together as a Team. Agreements may cover, for instance, communication styles, ways of giving feedback to each other, as well as shared and individual tasks, deadlines, etc. 

 Step 6 Follow-up (n/a) The group gets together on a regular basis to assess progress on the last agreements and to make new ones for the work ahead. Alternatively, progress can be monitored using the next exercise, Retrospective Scrum Method.

 [Freely adapted from: Edelbroek, H., M. Mijnders & G. Post. (2018). Interdisciplinary Learning Activities. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press: pp. 63-67].

 
== Retrospective Scrum Method (for Teamwork) ==
 The Retrospective is a Teamwork tool from the Scrum method that helps monitor progress in Teamwork and ensure that the group remains aligned to the roles and goals of all participants. The benefits of this tool are that its essence is very simple and quick. You can build on this basic structure, depending on your needs. 

 Time: +/- 40 minutes 

 Step 1 Introduction (5 min.) In the above picture, you see six stimulating categories. In this exercise, a facilitator (for instance, the Servant Leader [link to Servant Leadership wiki]) asks participants to write down their input for each of these categories on post-it’s and stick them underneath each category. There are no wrong answers. It is good for participants to have a frame to work with, such as: “your experience in this team the past two months” OR “the scientific level of this project.” This frame will help steer participant input to the topic set by the facilitator. 

 Step 2 Sharing (20 min.) After everyone has put up their post-its, the facilitator reads each of them out loud to the group. This is a moment for people to elaborate on their input or ask for elaboration from others.

 Step 3 Follow-up (15 min.) The facilitator invites discussion with the group and decisions about any concrete actions that need to be taken based on the session. Concrete actions are written down, and pictures of the post-its with each category are taken and shared with the team for later reference. 

 [Freely adapted from: https://vitalitychicago.com/blog/improving-your-retrospectives-part-3-techniques/ ]

 
= References =

*Edelbroek, H. M. Mijnders, G. Post. (2018). Interdisciplinary Learning Activities. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press.
*Twente Education Model: https://www.utwente.nl/en/tom/
*VU Learn Academy, Mixed Classroom Principles: https://vu.nl/en/education/learn-academy

Prototype

2021-06-14T13:15:57Z

Admin:

Prototypes are tangible representations of products or solutions that are being designed, meant to be used for testing in order to further develop the product or solution. As Poggenpohl <ref name="pogg">Poggenpohl, Sharon H. 2002. Design Moves: Approximating a Desired Future with Users. In Jorge Frascara, ed. Design and the Social Sciences. London and New York: Taylor & Francis Books Limited. Pp.: 66-82.</ref> explains, prototypes are a “material conversation that the designer has with the User”. By seeing them as “a way to learn from the user what familiarity the object has (or lacks), what patterns of behaviour the object fits into, what intuitive responses the user brings to the object and which aspects of the prototype elicit satisfaction or delight”. She distinguishes prototyping from usability testing, “which seeks to verify the design of a product holistically at a rather late point in the development process” <ref name="pogg" />.

Prototypes can be used at any stage of the development process and can take many forms that “give everyone a real-world representation of ideas that will help engender a response from your team” <ref>Merholz, Peter, Todd Wilkens, Brandon Schauer, and David Verba. 2008. Subject to Change: Creating Great Products and Services for an Uncertain World. Beijing, Cambridge: O’Reilly.</ref> . Poggenpohl <ref name="pogg" /> distinguishes between four different kinds of prototypes that often overlap: conceptual (diagram, sketch), behavioural (paper model, computer simulation), procedural (space/time sequence), and appearance (refined model) prototypes.

Prototypes are used to test ideas, and also to explore and create new knowledge. Prototypes can be considered to be filters of a particular aspect which the designer wants to test or explore <ref name="lim"> Lim, Y. K., Stolterman, E., & Tenenberg, J. (2008). The anatomy of prototypes: Prototypes as filters, prototypes as manifestations of design ideas. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction (TOCHI), 15(2), 1-27.</ref> . For example, by developing specific aspects such as the graphical interface, it is more likely that an evaluation of the prototype will result in feedback on that aspect. Before creating the prototype, it is therefore important to have an idea of what you want to test, in order to determine how best to go about testing it.

Prototypes are often classified in level of fidelity. Different levels are often called low fidelity (lo-fi), mixed fidelity (mixed fi) and high fidelity (hi-fi). McCurdy et al. <ref name="mccurdy"> McCurdy, M., Connors, C., Pyrzak, G., Kanefsky, B., & Vera, A. (2006, April). Breaking the fidelity barrier: an examination of our current characterization of prototypes and an example of a mixed-fidelity success. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human Factors in computing systems (pp. 1233-1242). </ref> describe five dimensions along which a prototype can be characterised: visual refinement, breadth and depth of functionality, richness of interactivity, and richness of data model. Depending on how developed a prototype is within these scales, it can be described as lo-, mixed or hi-fi.

<h2>Prototyping Tools</h2>
Depending on what type of prototype is being created, there are useful tools to help create the prototypes easily and efficiently. The table summarises some popular tools for creating prototypes.

{| class="wikitable" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%; height: 207px;"
|- style="height: 23px;"
! style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Tool
! style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Type of prototype
! style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Platform
|- style="height: 23px;"
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | InVision Studio
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Behavioural, appearance
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Cloud/Windows/MacOS
|- style="height: 23px;"
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Figma
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Behavioural, appearance
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Cloud
|- style="height: 23px;"
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Adobe XD
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Behavioural, appearance
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Windows/MacOS
|- style="height: 23px;"
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Lego
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Conceptual, behavioural, appearance
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | None (physical)
|- style="height: 23px;"
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | PowerPoint
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Conceptual, behavioural, appearance
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Windows/MacOS
|- style="height: 23px;"
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Keynote
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Conceptual, behavioural, appearance
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | MacOS
|- style="height: 23px;"
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Paper
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Conceptual, behavioural
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | None (physical)
|- style="height: 23px;"
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | OmniGraffle
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Procedural, behavioural, appearance
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | MacOS/iOS
|}

<h2>References</h2>

Prototype

2021-06-14T13:13:59Z

Admin:

Prototypes are tangible representations of products or solutions that are being designed. As Poggenpohl <ref name="pogg">Poggenpohl, Sharon H. 2002. Design Moves: Approximating a Desired Future with Users. In Jorge Frascara, ed. Design and the Social Sciences. London and New York: Taylor & Francis Books Limited. Pp.: 66-82.</ref> explains, prototypes are a “material conversation that the designer has with the User”. By seeing them as “a way to learn from the user what familiarity the object has (or lacks), what patterns of behaviour the object fits into, what intuitive responses the user brings to the object and which aspects of the prototype elicit satisfaction or delight”. She distinguishes prototyping from usability testing, “which seeks to verify the design of a product holistically at a rather late point in the development process” <ref name="pogg" />.

Prototypes can be used at any stage of the development process and can take many forms that “give everyone a real-world representation of ideas that will help engender a response from your team” <ref>Merholz, Peter, Todd Wilkens, Brandon Schauer, and David Verba. 2008. Subject to Change: Creating Great Products and Services for an Uncertain World. Beijing, Cambridge: O’Reilly.</ref> . Poggenpohl <ref name="pogg" /> distinguishes between four different kinds of prototypes that often overlap: conceptual (diagram, sketch), behavioural (paper model, computer simulation), procedural (space/time sequence), and appearance (refined model) prototypes.

Prototypes are used to test ideas, and also to explore and create new knowledge. Prototypes can be considered to be filters of a particular aspect which the designer wants to test or explore <ref name="lim"> Lim, Y. K., Stolterman, E., & Tenenberg, J. (2008). The anatomy of prototypes: Prototypes as filters, prototypes as manifestations of design ideas. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction (TOCHI), 15(2), 1-27.</ref> . For example, by developing specific aspects such as the graphical interface, it is more likely that an evaluation of the prototype will result in feedback on that aspect. Before creating the prototype, it is therefore important to have an idea of what you want to test, in order to determine how best to go about testing it.

Prototypes are often classified in level of fidelity. Different levels are often called low fidelity (lo-fi), mixed fidelity (mixed fi) and high fidelity (hi-fi). McCurdy et al. <ref name="mccurdy"> McCurdy, M., Connors, C., Pyrzak, G., Kanefsky, B., & Vera, A. (2006, April). Breaking the fidelity barrier: an examination of our current characterization of prototypes and an example of a mixed-fidelity success. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human Factors in computing systems (pp. 1233-1242). </ref> describe five dimensions along which a prototype can be characterised: visual refinement, breadth and depth of functionality, richness of interactivity, and richness of data model. Depending on how developed a prototype is within these scales, it can be described as lo-, mixed or hi-fi.

<h2>Prototyping Tools</h2>
Depending on what type of prototype is being created, there are useful tools to help create the prototypes easily and efficiently. The table summarises some popular tools for creating prototypes.

{| class="wikitable" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%; height: 207px;"
|- style="height: 23px;"
! style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Tool
! style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Type of prototype
! style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Platform
|- style="height: 23px;"
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | InVision Studio
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Behavioural, appearance
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Cloud/Windows/MacOS
|- style="height: 23px;"
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Figma
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Behavioural, appearance
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Cloud
|- style="height: 23px;"
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Adobe XD
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Behavioural, appearance
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Windows/MacOS
|- style="height: 23px;"
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Lego
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Conceptual, behavioural, appearance
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | None (physical)
|- style="height: 23px;"
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | PowerPoint
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Conceptual, behavioural, appearance
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Windows/MacOS
|- style="height: 23px;"
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Keynote
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Conceptual, behavioural, appearance
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | MacOS
|- style="height: 23px;"
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Paper
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Conceptual, behavioural
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | None (physical)
|- style="height: 23px;"
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | OmniGraffle
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | Procedural, behavioural, appearance
| style="width: 33.3333%; height: 23px;" | MacOS/iOS
|}

<h2>References</h2>

Prototype

2021-06-14T13:09:00Z

Admin:

Prototype

2021-06-14T13:08:24Z

Admin:

2021-04-13T08:15:48Z

Admin: Created page with "Close cooperation between Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) industry, businesses, or other non-academic partners. These non-academic organisations are not seen as clients,..."

Close cooperation between Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) industry, businesses, or other non-academic partners. These non-academic organisations are not seen as clients, ultimately benefiting from the collaboration outcomes, but as equal partners in the entire research and development process (incl. definition of concepts, co-creation of methods) and as process facilitators bridging to create a bigger impact. 